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War Guilt Clause in the Treaty of Versailles

Monday, July 23rd, 2018

The War Guilt Clause in Article 231 in Part 8 in the Treaty of Versailles, was by far the most controversial section of the peace agreement. The article demanded that Germany alone accept full responsibility for the losses and damages the Allied nations had sustained during World War I. In 1921, the total cost of the reparations was assessed at $33 billion (equivalent to about US $442 billion in 2018). Furthermore, the Allies insisted that the treaty permit them to take punitive actions if Germany fell behind in its payments.

German reaction to the War Guilt Clause

The harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles fostered deep resentment in Germany. In October 1918, when the German Government had asked U.S. President Woodrow Wilson to arrange a general armistice, it had also agreed to the Fourteen Points of the postwar peace settlement as formulated by Wilson. However, when the Treaty of Versailles was ready for signature, Germany was shocked to find that the terms of reparation were much harsher than Wilson’s Fourteen Points. In particular, Germans took offense to the provision that blamed their country for starting the war. They considered the latter an insult to their nation’s honor. German Chancellor Philipp Scheidemann even resigned rather than sign the Treaty of Versailles. After much consideration, German Foreign Minister Hermann Mueller and Colonial Minister Johannes Bell travelled to Versailles to sign the postwar agreement on behalf of Germany.

Historians on the Treaty of Versailles

British economist John Maynard Keynes referred to the Treaty of Versailles as a Carthaginian peace (a very brutal peace achieved by completely crushing the enemy) in an attempt to destroy Germany rather than to adhere to the more reasonable principles set out in U.S. President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points. Keynes believed the sums being asked for reparations were many times more than what Germany could pay. Other historians, chiefly German historian Detlev Peukert, French historian Raymond Cartier and British historian Richard J. Evans disagree with Keynes’ position.

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Tags: Article 231, Detlef Peukert, Hermann Mueller, Johannes Bell, John Maynard Keynes, Philipp Scheidemann, Raymond Cartier, Richard J. Evans, Treaty of Versailles, War Guilt Clause, Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points
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Treaty of Versailles ended World War I

Monday, July 16th, 2018

The Treaty of Versailles ended World War I. It took six months of Allied negotiations before the treaty was signed on 28 June 1919. The defeated nations (Germany, Austria and Hungary) were excluded from the negotiations. Russia, which had negotiated a separate peace with Germany the year before, was also excluded.

The conditions of the Treaty of Versailles were determined at meetings between the leaders of Great Britain (Prime Minister David Lloyd George), France (Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau), the United States (President Woodrow Wilson) and Italy (Prime Mister Vittorio Orlando). During the negotiations, French delegates sought to annex both the Saar Valley and the colonial German empire and to dismember Germany to prevent her from starting future wars. Although British and American negotiators also advocated stiff reparations, they did not want to totally cripple the German economy and thereby forego the possibility of a viable future trading partner.

The Treaty of Versailles was strictly enforced for five years, then modified mostly in Germany’s favor. In 1932, the depression led to the indefinite postponement of reparation payments, and by 1938 only the territorial settlement articles remained.

The Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles, France, where the Treaty of Versailles was signed in 1919. www.walled-in-berlin.com

Conditions of the Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles consisted of 15 parts and 440 articles.

Part 1 – Created a new League of Nations, which Germany was not allowed to join until 1926.
Part 2 – Specified Germany’s new boundaries with Eupen-Malmady going to Belgium, Alsace-Lorraine to France, West Prussia, Posen and Upper Silesia to Poland, Memel to Lithuania, and large portions of Schleswig Holstein to Denmark.
Part 3 – Stipulated a demilitarized zone and a separation of the Saarland from Germany for 15 years.
Part 4 – Stripped Germany of all its colonies.
Part 5 – Reduced Germany’s military forces to very low levels, prohibited Germany from possessing certain classes of weapons and committed the Allies to eventual disarmament.
Part 6 – Determined terms for the return of prisoners of war and for the treatment of the graves of fallen soldiers.
Part 7 – Created terms for the trials of those accused of war crimes against the Allied Powers.
Part 8 – Established Germany’s responsibility for reparations without stating a specific figure and forced Germany to accept full responsibility for World War I.
Part 9 – Imposed numerous other financial obligations on Germany.
Part 10 – Addressed shipping and unfair competition.
Part 11 – Gave Allied and Associated Powers full passage and landing rights over and in the territory and in the territorial waters of Germany.
Part 12 – Established terms regarding German ports, waterways and railroads.
Part 13 – Established terms regarding labor.
Part 14 – Established guarantees for Western and Eastern Europe regarding the evacuation of Allied Powers.
Part 15 – Miscellaneous provisions.

By far the most controversial section of the Treaty of Versailles was Article 231 in Part 8 of the agreement, known as the War Guilt Clause, which was partly responsible for the rise of the Nazis in Germany.

Tags: British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau, Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando, Treaty of Versailles, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, War Guilt Clause
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Berlin’s former Nazi Prison Papestrasse

Monday, July 9th, 2018

The existence of Berlin’s former Nazi Prison Papestrasse is not well known, yet it is the only surviving historical site of early Nazi terror in the city. The former prison is located in General-Pape-Strasse in the Tempelhof district of the city. Between March 1933 and December 1933, shortly after Hitler had come to power, 100 such prisons were established throughout Germany. They were known as detention centers and were forerunners of the heinous Nazi concentration camps that followed.

Former Nazi Prison Papestrasse in Berlin – now a Memorial. Photo © J. Elke Ertle, 2015. www.walled-in-berlin.com

In the Nazi Prison Papestrasse, the Field Police division of the Nazi Sturm Abteilung (Storm Troopers) – the paramilitary wing of the Nazi Party – interrogated and tortured political opponents, Jews and other groups persecuted by the Nazi regime. Over the course of the nine months that the center was in operation, over 2000 people were imprisoned in its cellars. At least 30 lost their lives.

Following World War II, the role the building had played during the war fell into oblivion. It was not until 1981 that area residents began to recall its function during contemporary eyewitness interviews. Following much research, the building, which had largely been spared from the destruction of the war, became a Memorial site in 2003 and opened to the public in 2011.

Conditions in the Nazi Prison Papestrasse

The Field Police utilized the building’s gloomy basement rooms as prison cells and the upper floors as offices and interrogation rooms. Sanitary conditions in the prison were poor. The supply of food and water was inadequate and irregular. The cells were unheated. The floor was partly covered with straw. Prisoners either had to stand or sit on the floor because cots were reserved for seriously injured prisoners. Brutal interrogations were a regular part of detention. Detainees were beaten, tortured and raped. Detentions lasted anywhere from a few days to several weeks or months.

Prison cell in the former Nazi Prison Papestrasse, Berlin. Photo © J. Elke Ertle, 2015. www.walled-in-berlin.com

Use of the building prior to becoming the Nazi Prison Papestrasse

In the year 1841, the railway line between Berlin and Jueterbog, a small town south of Berlin, had opened. After the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 to 1871, railways became important to Prussian Railway Regiments because they could transport soldiers and supplies much faster and more efficiently. That prompted the Prussian military to build two new complexes of barracks along General-Pape-Strasse to be used as utility buildings. But because of Germany’s defeat in World War I and the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles, the regiments were soon dissolved. Although the buildings remained in state hands, public and private tenants moved in. Then, in 1933, about 180 Field Police moved into one of the former barracks to transform the building into the Nazi Prison Papestrasse.

Papestrasse Memorial

The Papestrasse Memorial is open to the public free of charge. For the most part, the prison cells are still in their original condition. Panels on the walls of the Nazi Prison Papestrasse document the history of the Nazi party. Wall graffiti created by the prisoners is still visible today.

Tags: Adolf Hitler, Berlin, Nazi concentration camps, Nazi Prison Papestrasse Memorial, Nazi Storm Troopers, Treaty of Versailles
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How Adolf Hitler came to power

Monday, July 2nd, 2018

Adolf Hitler, Chancellor of Germany during the Nazi period, came to power by bullying his way into office. He intimidated his opponents and promised the populace to make Germany powerful and proud again. The key government leaders already in office were accustomed to the democratic procedures of the Weimar Republic and unable to stand up to Hitler’s confrontational style. They meekly acquiesced while the majority of the population chose to look past some of Hitler’s misguided policies because he also promised to turn around the country’s dismal economic conditions, a result of the harsh peace terms of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. They focused on Hitler’s immediate promises rather than his long-term agenda.

Adolf Hitler came to power by bullying his way into office. www.walled-in-berlin.com

How Adolf Hitler eliminated political opponents

The appointment of Adolf Hitler as Chancellor of the German Reich on 30 January 1933 marked the end of the Weimar Republic and of democracy in Germany. Since the Nazis had achieved only below average results in the 1932 elections in Berlin – the capital of Germany and center of German political power – it was of utmost importance to Adolf Hitler to gain full control in the city. While his people had pursued their aims primarily by means of rowdy propaganda and street violence prior to his appointment, as Reich Chancellor Adolf Hitler took full advantage of all means of state power he had at his disposal. His aim was to eliminate political opponents and establish himself as a dictator.

Only two days after Adolf Hitler had been appointed Chancellor, the elderly Reich President Paul von Hindenburg was persuaded to dissolve the Reichstag (Parliament). In protest, the Communist Party called for a general strike. Upon Hitler’s urging, Hindenburg signed an emergency decree, which stipulated that demonstrations and pamphlets of political opponents would be forbidden. A rapid extension of the state police followed. Their purpose was to take action against “enemies of the state” with firearms.

With the Reichstag Fire Decree Adolf Hitler suspended civil liberties

On 27 February 1933, barely a month after Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor, the Reichstag chambers went up in flames. The Nazi government quickly blamed the fire on a communist coup and authorized another emergency law. It was called the Reichstag Fire Decree and was enacted the very next day for “the protection of the people and state.” The emergency decree suspended most of the civil liberties set forth in the Weimar Constitution, such as freedom of speech, freedom of the press, the right of public assembly, the secrecy of the post and telephone service, and it removed all restraints on police investigations. https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007888 In other words, the decree provided the legal basis for the persecution of opponents of the regime. No warrant or judicial order was required, there was no right of appeal, and the arrests went into effect for an indefinite period of time. The number of people arrested rose abruptly after the Reichstag fire. Detention centers, such as the Nazi Prison Papestrasse were installed throughout the city and the country.

With the Enabling Act Adolf Hitler became a dictator

Less than a month later, on the heels of the Reichstag Fire Decree, Adolf Hitler passed another emergency law: the “Enabling Act” (Ermaechtigungsgesetz). It gave Hitler the power to enact laws without the involvement of the Reichstag. Together the two emergency laws abolished most civil liberties and transformed Hitler’s government into a legal dictatorship. The state of emergency remained in force until the end of the war in 1945. The climate of fear that spread throughout the country thwarted many potential attempts at resistance.

Tags: Adolf Hitler, Berlin, Enabling Act, Ermaechtigungsgesetz, Nazi Prison Papestrasse, Paul von Hindenburg, Reichstag, Reichstag Fire Decree, Treaty of Versailles, Weimar Republic
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Saving – ingrained in German culture

Monday, June 25th, 2018

Germans are saving twice as much of their disposable income as their American counterparts. In 2015, German households set aside 10% of their disposable income while Americans saved only 5.5%. Germans tend to save more, purchase less on credit and take out fewer home loans than their American cousins. While Germans enjoy free healthcare and college tuition, Americans fund these services from their own pockets. Wouldn’t the added expense encourage Americans to put more funds aside for healthcare and college tuition? The opposite is true. Why?

Birth of the German saving culture

Germans have a long history of saving. The worlds’ first savings bank was founded in Hamburg in 1778. https://www.ft.com/content/c8772236-2b93-11e8-a34a-7e7563b0b0f4 Its purpose was to provide an avenue for the urban poor to save a few extra pennies for their children’s education and for rainy days. But the idea took hold far beyond the urban poor. Suddenly, savings accounts mushroomed all over Germany. By 1875, at least a quarter of the population had savings accounts. Schools began teaching the concept of saving to children and introduced special school savings banks. With the German unification of 1871 saving deposits began to be seen as a service to the nation because they allowed local banks to make them available to municipalities for the construction of canals, roads, electric works, gas works, schools, theaters and public parks.

Germans are saving twice as much of their disposable income as their American counterparts. www.walled-in-berlin.com

During World War I, the German government encouraged people to invest their savings in war bonds. But with the demise of the Weimar Republic people saw their savings deposits erode and finally be wiped out entirely by the hyperinflation of 1923. During the Nazi period that followed, Germans began to save all over again. Those savings, too, were wiped out by inflation, the currency reform and the introduction of the Deutsche Mark in the aftermath of World War II. Soon afterwards however, people started saving again because, apparently, the idea of savingwas deeply ingrained in the German culture by now. It is a habit that starts in childhood. When I was a little girl growing up in Berlin, I too, had a savings account in my name at our local bank. Whenever I had accumulated the miniscule sum of One Mark after rigorous penny-pinching, I deposited that money in my savings account. I was proud to watch my savings account grow. As far as I was knew, money belonged in the bank.

Saving Culture in German government

Financial discipline isn’t just considered a virtue on a personal level. One of the German government’s goal each year is to present a debt-free budget. It is referred to as “Black Zero” (Schwarze Null), which means being in the black. German finance ministers earn the support of voters not by promising tax cuts and spending increases, but by proving their commitment to fiscal discipline. In the United States, on the other hand, savings are equated to a lack of consumption and poor demand. Most of the US economy is driven by credit and debt. Heavy marketing also encourages Americans to spend rather than to save. While Germans consider saving the right thing to do, Americans consider taking on debt the right thing to do.

Tags: Black Zero, German saving history, Schwarze Null, Weimar Republic
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Berlin Philharmonie – outstanding acoustics

Monday, June 18th, 2018

When it first opened in 1963, the Berlin Philharmonie was located on the very edge of West Berlin, only a stone’s throw from the Berlin Wall. The building, with its tent-like shape and distinctive yellow exterior, ignited much controversy at the time. Over the years, and now part of the urban center of the reunified city, the Berlin Philharmonie has served as a model for concert halls all over the world. It consists of two venues, the Grand Hall (Grosser Saal) and the Chamber Music Hall (Kammermusiksaal). The Grand Hall has 2,440 seats with the orchestral platform in its center and terraced seating surrounding it. The smaller Chamber Music Hall has 1,180 seats.

Berlin Philharmonie, Photo © J. Elke Ertle, 2017. www.walled-in-berlin.com

Designer enlists services of acoustics expert

The German architect, Professor Hans Scharoun, designed the Berlin Symphonie and enlisted the services of Professor Lothar Cremer. An expert in acoustics, Cremer was the head of the Institute for Technical Acoustics at Berlin’s Technical University at the time. Together, the two men ventured into hitherto uncharted territory. Before the Berlin Philharmonie first opened with a performance of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony in 1963, experts had fired a series of pistol shots into the auditorium to fine-tune the acoustics. Aside from the new concept of placing the orchestral platform in the center and surrounding it with with vineyard-style seating, the musicians still had to be able to hear each other, and the audience had to be able to hear the musicians. To prevent the sound from being dispersed in only one direction, Cramer decided to suspend reflective surfaces “clouds” above the orchestral platform. The tent-like ceiling of the auditorium also helps to diffuse the sound.

History of the Berlin Philharmonie

The predecessor of the Philharmonie was founded in 1882 by 54 musicians. The group called itself the Fruehere Bilsesche Kapelle (Former Bilse’s Band). It performed in a former ice rink until British bombers destroyed it in 1944. Thereafter, until near the end of the war, the orchestra played in the State Opera and when it, too, was destroyed in 1945, the Berlin Philharmonie moved into the Titania-Palast, an old movie theater. Despite several changes in leadership, the orchestra performed throughout World War II.

In 1952, a permanent location for the Berlin Philharmonie became the subject of much discussion. A tug of war ensued about whether to expand, rebuild or construct a new building. After Professor Scharoun’s design was awarded first price in an architectural competition in 1956, the current site was chosen. Herbert von Karajan, led the orchestra from 1955 until April 1989, only months before his death.

How the Berlin Symphonie chooses its principal conductor

Since the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, the orchestra’s 128 musicians jointly elect their principal conductor in a secret and democratic vote. Sir Simon Rattle is the present conductor. The new conductor designate to take over in August 2019 is Kirill Petrenko.

Tags: Berlin landmark, Berlin Philharmonie, Fruehere Bilsesche Kapelle, Hans Scharoun, Herbert von Karajan, Kirill Petrenko, Lothar Cremer, Sir Simon Rattle, Titania Palast
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Haus der Kulturen der Welt showcases culture

Monday, June 11th, 2018

Berlin’s Haus der Kulturen der Welt (House of the Cultures of the World) is one of the city’s modern architectural landmarks. The building is located in the central district of Tiergarten and within walking distance of the Brandenburg Gate, the Reichstag and the Chancellery. Since it is located beside the River Spree, it has its own pier so that visitors can also arrive by boat. The most striking feature of the Haus der Kulturen der Welt is its signature curved roof.

Haus der Kulturen der Welt (House of the Cultures of the World) in Berlin-Tiergarten. Photo © J Elke Ertle, 2017. www.walled-in-berlin.com

From Congress Hall to Haus der Kulturen der Welt

The landmark building was erected for the 1957 International Architecture Exhibition in Berlin (Internationale Bauausstellung) and initially named Kongresshalle (Congress Hall). This gift from the United States to Germany was designed by U.S. architect Hugh Stubbins, Jr. as a symbol of friendship between the United States and Germany and as a forum for free expression. Stubbins likened the curved roof to symbolic wings and the promise that there would be “no restrictions on the freedom of intellectual work”. Because of its gravity-defying curved roof, Berliners soon dubbed the building “pregnant oyster.”

In 1980, part of the Congress Hall’s signature roof collapsed, killing one and injuring numerous others. The building reopened in 1987, reconstructed with additional supports and just in time for the 750-year anniversary of the founding of the city of Berlin. Two years later, the Kongresshalle was renamed Haus der Kulturen der Welt and proffered a significantly different venue.

Haus der Kulturen der Welt furthers international contemporary art

Since its reopening, the Haus der Kulturen der Welt has showcased culture from all over the world, with special focus on non-European cultures and societies. It brings together visual arts, music, author readings, theater, dance, film and digital media and creates themed exhibitions, events and international conferences. In cooperation with musicians, media professionals and artists, the Haus der Kulturen der Welt offers workshops in radio, documentary film, photography, music and drawing throughout the year. The Transmediale, a media art festival, takes place annually and the Berlin Documentary Forum takes place every two years.

Butterfly Sculpture in front of Haus der Kulturen der Welt

A massive polished bronze sculpture stands in the middle of a large reflecting pool in front of building. British artist Henry Moore created the 8-ton art piece and entitled it, “Large Divided Oval: Butterfly”. The sculpture was installed in 1987 when the hall reopened.

Carillon beside the Haus der Kulturen der Welt

When the original Congress Hall was restored for Berlin’s 750-year anniversary, a 138-foot bell tower was constructed beside it. The granite carillon was a gift from the Daimler-Benz company. With 68 bells, it is the fourth-largest carillon in the world. Every Sunday at 3 p.m. during the summer and on many public holidays, Berlin carillonneur, Jeffrey Bossin, plays live concerts with his fists and feet on a baton-and-pedal keyboard. Concerts are free to the public.

Tags: Berlin, Berlin Documentary Forum, Berlin landmark, Carillon, Congress Hall, Haus der Kulturen der Welt, Henry Moore, House of the Cultures of the World, Hugh Stubbins, International, International Architecture Exhibition, Jeffrey Bossin, Jr., Kongresshalle, Transmediale
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RIAS – 47 Years “Voice of the Free World”

Monday, June 4th, 2018

I grew up in Berlin listening to RIAS, “Voice of the Free World.” Immediately following WWII, there was no television. We got our information from the radio and newspapers. During the post-war occupation, Great Britain created the broadcasting station NWDR (Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk – Northwest German Radio) for the British Zones of Germany and Berlin; the United States gave rise to RIAS (Rundfunk im Amerikanischen Sektor – Radio in the American Sector) for the American Zones of Germany and Berlin. For nearly half a century, RIAS broadcast news, culture, and entertainment programs to the German people.

RIAS History

In 1946, the US military created DIAS (Drahtfunk im Amerikanischen Sektor – Wired Radio Broadcasting in the American Sector). Six months later, DIAS morphed into RIAS reporting via medium wave transmitters. In 1948, Great Britain transferred control of NWDR to West German operators while RIAS remained under control of the US military. Eventually, the station staff was almost entirely German, supervised by a small American team.

It was a radio like this that brought us RIAS – The Voice of the Free World – when I was a child. www.walled-in-berlin.com

The purpose of RIAS-radio and television

Initially, the purpose of RIAS-radio was to provide the West German people with news and political commentary. The station provided live reporting during key Cold War events, such as the 1948/1949 Berlin Blockade and Airlift, the workers’ riots in East Germany in 1953, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev’s 1958 ultimatum calling for the withdrawal of Western forces from Berlin, and US President John F. Kennedy’s visit in Berlin in 1963. Aside from airing in the West, RIAS-radio also broadcast into East Germany although listening to western stations was strongly discouraged (if not forbidden) in the Soviet-controlled East Germany. Nevertheless, the station had a huge audience in East Germany and was the most popular foreign radio service during that time.

In 1988, RIAS-TV went on the air, only months before the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989. Prior to 1988, no Western television broadcasts had been specifically targeted at East Germany, although many of the domestic West German TV networks could be received throughout most of the East. RIAS-TV had come to life in time to broadcast the fall of the wall to the East German people. In 1992, following re-unification, Deutsche Welle (Germany’s International broadcaster) inherited the RIAS-TV broadcast facilities, and in 1994, RIAS-radio morphed into the public radio station Deutschlandradio.

Popular RIAS radio Programs

Radio programs always opened with, “Hier ist RIAS Berlin, die Stimme der Freien Welt– this is RIAS Berlin, the voice of the free world.” As a child, my favorite program was “Onkel Tobias vom RIAS,” which was aired from 1947 to 1972. Every Sunday at 10:00 am, Fritz Genschow, author of many children’s movies and plays, put on a radio show together with a group of young radio actors. Years later, I enjoyed listening to programs, like “Der Insulaner” (the islander), a political spoof mocking communism, the RIAS-Kammerchor, a professional chamber choir, and the RIAS-Symphonie-Orchester, which still exists today.

Tags: Der Insulaner, Deutsche Welle, Deutschlandradio, DIAS, Fritz Genschow, Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk, Northwest German Radio, Onkel Tobias vom RIAS, Radio in the American Sector, RIAS, RIAS-"Symphonie-Orchester, RIAS-Kammerchor, Rundfunk im Amerikanischen Sektor, Stimme der Freien Welt, Voice of the Free World
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Gutenberg revolutionized book reading

Monday, May 28th, 2018

In 1439, Johannes Gutenberg, born Johannes Gensfleisch, introduced movable metal type printing to Europe. His printing press became key to moving the world out of the Medieval era and into the Early Modern period. In 1450, Gutenberg tested his invention by printing a Latin book on speech-making. When satisfied with the results, he embarked on printing the now famous Gutenberg Bibles.

Johannes Gutenberg’s printing press set off a printing revolution that boosted literacy by breaking the elite’s monopoly on education. Prior to his invention, the majority of books were written and copied by hand or were printed using carved wooden blocks that were pressed onto paper. Because these processes were labor-intensive, books were very expensive, and only the rich could afford them. Other print machine inventors, mainly from China and Korea, had previously worked on similar apparatuses, but Gutenberg’s printing press had a worldwide impact.

Johannes Gutenberg’s life

The year and place of Johannes Gutenberg’s birth are not precisely known. He is believed to have been born between the years of 1394 and 1404 in Mainz, Germany. Trained as a goldsmith, gem gutter and metallurgist, he started experimenting with printing by 1438. Between 1450 and 1455, he completed his best-known work, the Forty-Two-Line Bibles. Although Gutenberg was unable to financially capitalize on his invention, his printing technology spread quickly across Europe and revolutionized the creation of affordable books.He died in Mainz in 1468.

Martin Luther benefits from Gutenberg’s invention

The Protestant Reformation would not have been possible without the availability of Johann Gutenberg’s printing press. Martin Luther produced over 300,000 pamphlets during his lifetime. His 95 Theses were printed and circulated widely. Certificates of indulgences were among the first items Gutenberg printed.

The Gutenberg Forty-Two-Line Bibles

The Gutenberg Bibles were printed in Latin and considered the first substantial books printed in Europe.The printing process was done entirely by hand. Approximately 175 to 180 copies were printed, and it took between three to five years to complete the entire print run. 175-180 books seem like a small number today, but at the time there were probably no more than 30,000 books in existence in all of Europe.

Gutenberg Bible on exhibit at the Henry E. Huntington Library in San Marino, California. This is one of the 48 surviving Bibles. It is complete and printed on vellum. Photo © J. Elke Ertle, 2018. www.walled-in-berlin.com

Each Gutenberg Bible weighs about 14 lbs. Most of them contain 1,286 pages and were bound in two volumes. Almost no two are exactly alike. The Gutenberg Bible is also known as the Forty-Two Line Bible because the pages are printed with two columns of 42 lines each.

Only 48 copies of the original 175 to 180 have survived, and only twelve Gutenberg Bibles were printed on prepared animal skin, called vellum. It took about 170 calfskins to produce just one Bible from vellum. The remainder were printed on rag cotton paper. The average price for one Bible is believed to have been 30 Florins, which represented three years wages for a clerk at the time.

Gutenberg Bibles still in existence today

Of the original run of 175-180 Bibles, only 48 still exist today in libraries, museum and university collections. Only 6 complete Gutenberg Bibles printed on the more expensive vellum still exist. They are located in Paris, Leipzig, Goettingen, London, Washington, DC, and in the Henry E. Huntington Library in San Marino, California. I was privileged to set eyes on one of them at the Huntington Library.

As an interesting aside, two of the remaining 48 Gutenberg Bibles were taken from Germany by the Red Army at the end of World War II as war booty. They were discovered in the 1980s in Moscow libraries and have not been returned to Germany to this day.

Tags: 95 Theses, Forty-Two-Line Bible, Germany, Gutenberg Bible, Henry E. Huntington Library, Johannes Gensfleisch, Johannes Gutenberg, Mainz, Martin Luther, movable metal type printing, printing press
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